AHIPHENA
Botanical Name— Papaver somniferum Linn.
Family— PAPA VERACEAE
Names
in different languages
Bengali-Postodheri;
Hindi- Postha; English- Opium/Poppy seeds Telugu- Nalla mandu
Synonyms- Khasa Tila, Tila bheda, Khakhasa are the
synonyms of seeds.
Scientific classification: Poppies make up the family
Papaveraceae in the order Papaverales. The Oriental poppy is classified as
Papaver orientale, and the opium poppy as Papaver somniferum. The family
Fumariaceae is the only other family in the order Papaverales.
Introduction
Raja Nighantu describes Ahiphena under the ‘Upa
Visa gana. Caraka,Susruta did not mention this poisonous drug.
Classification
according to Caraka, Susrutha & Vagbhata
Caraka
-nil
Susruta -nil
Vagbhata –nil
Susruta -nil
Vagbhata –nil
.
Varieties & adulterants - (CV – controversy, AD – adulterants)
(i) Jãrana - white variety - acts as digestive.
(ii) Mãrana - black variety -- caused death
(iii) Dhãrana - yellow variety -- acts as Rasayana (tonic)
(iv) Sãrana - different colors ---_removes metabolic residues from body
Poisoning effects
Its contact with skin may produce erythema and itching. It mainly effects
nervous system.
Fatal dose is opium 2-4 g; morphine 0.2-0.4g & codein 0.5g.
Treatment
(1) Stomach wash with 1:5000 potassium permanganate solution.
(2) Administration of N-allyl-normorphine (lethidrone or nalorphine) 5-10mg i.e. repeated every 15-30 min. until respirations retuns.
(3)
charcoal Uses in first stage
Morphology
An erect, rarely branched, annual herb, 70-120 cm. in height.
Leaves— many, amplexicaule, lobed, dentate or serrate,
linear-oblong or ovate-oblong.
Flowers— usually bluish white with a purple base or
white, purple or variegated, 7.6-17.8 cm. long. Capsules- globose, stalked,
2.5cm diameter.
Seeds reniform, black or white.
Distribution & Habitat - A native of west Asia
Major chemical constituents—
Cured opium contains about 25 alkaloids. Some of
them are: Morphine Codein Papaverene, Narcotine, Meconic acid, Aponorphine
Properties—
Rasa- Tikta, Kashaya
Guna
-Laghu, Rüksa, Süksma, Vyavayi
Virya-
Usna
Vipaka-
Katu
Karma
Kapha hara, Madakari, Grahi, Sukra Sthambhaka
Indications— Atisãra, Kãsa, Dãrunaka, Jvara, Nidrã nasa
External uses: As it is ushna, it acts as an analgesic
and anti-inflammatory. It is used in inflammation of joints, pleuritis and in
inflammation of many parts of body, as single drug or mixed with any other
liquid mixture for external application. Its suppository is used in
haemorrhoids, fissures and other rectal disorders.
Internal
uses;
Nervous system: As it is vyavayee.
vikashi acts as an analgesic; sedative and anticonvulsant. As it stimulates
vomiting centre in the brain, vagus nerve and centres of contraction of pupils.
Digestive system : It reduces salivation, lowers appetite, It reduces blood sugar & bile. The special property of morphine is to reduce pain. It induces constipation by contracting abdominal muscles, stomach and intestines.
Circulatory system : it reduces the heart rate also increases the strength
of the heart, it is useful in cardiac asthma and in
cardiac pain. It acts as hoemostatic. hence is used in internal bleeding
disorders, mainly internal.
Respiratory system : It is a depressant of the respiratory system..
Urinary system: It is useful in
Ekshumeha.(decreases sugar in urine)
Reproductive system As its
is gunas ( properties) reduces all the dhatus and impotency occurs. It is
useful in those men in premature ejaculation occurs
Skin : due to its ushna Veerya ,
it acts as diaphoretic and is useful in sheeta janya effects.
Temperature : It is used as an
antipyretic and especially in fever associated with chills when often other
medicines are not effective.
It is useful in pyrexia in filaria.
It is useful in pyrexia in filaria.
Eyes; It increases the intraocular pressure.
Important
Yogas or Formations
Ahiphenasav,
Nidrodayavati, Karpoor rasa, Dugdhavati.
Therapeutic Uses—
(1) Vãjikarana— A Combination of Ahiphena, Akãrakarabha,
Jatiphala, Japatri, Elã, Lavanga & Kumkuma (each lOg) along with
5g of Karpura are grinded together and administered orally (250- 300 mg pills) (Yo.Ra.)
(2) Atisãra— Ahiphena and bark of Kupilu are mixed with honey and administered orally (Vai. Ma.)
Part
Used—
Seeds, seed oil, unripe capsules, flowers and exudate from fruit.
Dosage— 40 to 120 mg.
Important
research work going on
1. Codeine is used as anti depressive agent.
2. Papaverine is used as muscle relaxant.
3. Morphine is used during the acute angina.
Additional points
Uses
A multiple-use plant, furnishing fiber, oil, medicine,
and narcotics. Fibers are best produced from male plants. In the temperate
zone, oil is produced from females which have been left to stand after the
fiber-producing males have been harvested. Leaves are added to soups in
southeast Asia. Varnish is made from the pressed seeds. Three types of
narcotics are produced: hashish (bhang), the dried leaves and flowers of male
and female shoots; ganja, dried unfertilized inflorescences of special female
plants; and charas, the crude resin, which is probably the strongest. Modern
medicine uses cannabis in glaucoma and alleviating the pains of cancer and
chemotherapy. More resin is produced in tropical than in temperate climates.
Lewis lung adenocarcinonoma growth has been retarded by oral administration of
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabinol, but
not by cannabidiol. (J.N.C.I. 55: 597-602. 1975). The delta-9 also inhibits the
replication of Herpes simplex virus.
Folk Medicine
Medicinally, plants are tonic, intoxicant, stomachic,
antispasmodic, analgesic, narcotic, sedative and anodyne. Seeds and leaves are
used to treat old cancer and scirrhous tumors. The seed, either as a paste or
as an unguent, is said to be a folk remedy for tumors and cancerous ulcers. The
decoction of the root is said help remedy hard tumors and knots in the joints.
The leaf, prepared in various manners, is said to alleviate cancerous sores,
scirrhous tumors, cold tumors, and white tumors. The plant is also used for
mammary tumors and corns (C.S.I.R., 1948-1976). Europeans are said to use the
dregs from Cannabis pipes in "cancer cures" (Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Few plants have a greater array of folk medicine uses:
alcohol withdrawal, anthrax, asthma, blood poisoning, bronchitis, burns,
catarrh, childbirth, convulsions, coughs, cystitis, delirium, depression,
diarrhea, dysentery, dysmenorrhea, epilepsy, fever, gonorrhea, gout,
inflammation, insomnia, jaundice, lockjaw, malaria, mania, mennorhagia,
migraine, morphine withdrawal, neuralgia, palsy, rheumatism, scalds, snakebite,
swellings, tetany, toothache, uteral prolapse, and whooping cough. Seeds ground
and mixed with porridge given to weaning children.
Chemistry
Most varieties contain cannabinol and cannabinin; Egyptian
variety contains cannabidine, cannabol and cannabinol, their biological
activity being due to the alcohols and phenolic compounds. Resin contains
crystalline compound cannin. Alcoholic extracts of American variety vary
considerably in physiological activity. Per 100 g, the seed is reported to
contain 8.8 g H2O, 21.5 g protein, 30.4 g fat, 34.7 g total
carbohydrate, 18.8 g fiber, and 4.6 g ash. In Asia, per 100 g, the seed is
reported to contain 421 calories, 13.6 g H2O, 27.1 g protein, 25.6 g
fat, 27.6 g total carbohydrate, 20.3 g fiber, 6.1 g ash, 120 mg Ca, 970 mg P,
12.0 mg Fe, 5 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.32 mg thiamine, 0.17 mg
riboflavin, and 2.1 mg niacin. A crystalline globulin has been isolated from
defatted meal. It contains 3.8% glycocol, 3.6 alanine, 20.9 valine and leucine,
2.4 phenylalanine, 2.1 tyrosine, 0.3 serine, 0.2 cystine, 4.1 proline, 2.0
oxyproline, 4.5 aspartic acid, 18.7 glutamic acid, 14.4 tryptophane and
arginine, 1.7 lysine, and 2.4% histidine. Oil from the seeds contains 15%
oleic, 70% linoleic, and 15% linolenic and isolinolenic acids. The seed cake
contains 10.8% water, 10.2% fat, 30.8% protein, 40.6% N-free extract, and 7.7%
ash (20.3% K2O; 0.8% Na2O; 23.6% CaO, 5.7% MgO, 1.0% Fe2O3, 36.5% P2O5, 0.2%
SO3; 11.9% SiO2, 0.1% Cl and a trace of Mn2O3). Trigonelline occurs in the
seed. Cannabis also contains choline, eugenol, guaiacol, nicotine, and
piperidine (C.S.I.R., 1948-1976), all listed as toxins by the National
Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. A beta-resercyclic acid derivative
has antibiotic and sedative properties; with a murine LD56 of 500 mg/kg, it has
some aritiviral effect and inhibits the growth of mouse mammary tumor in egg
embryo (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
Toxicity
Non-users
may suffer muscular incoordination (9 of 22 persons), dizziness (8), difficulty
concentrating (8), confusion (7), difficulty walking (7), dysarthria (7), dry
mouth (7), dysphagia (5), blurred vision (5), and vomiting (1), following oral
ingestion of THC disguised in cookies (MMWR, October 20, 1978). People working
with the plant or the fiber may develop dermatitis. In larger doses, hemp drugs
may induce catalepsy, followed by coma and DEATH from cardiac failure
(C.S.I.R., 1948-1976).
Description
Annual herb, usually erect; stems variable, up to 5 m
tall, with resinous pubescence, angular, sometimes hollow, especially above the
first pairs of true leaves; basal leaves opposite, the upper leaves alternate,
stipulate, long petiolate, palmate, with 3-11, rarely single, lanceolate,
serrate, acuminate leaflets up to 10 cm long, 1.5 cm broad; flowers
monoecious or dioecious, the male in axillary and
terminal panicles, apetalous, with 5 yellowish petals and 5 poricidal stamens;
the female flowers germinate in the axils and terminally, with one 1-ovulate
ovary; fruit a brown, shining achene, variously marked or plain, tightly
embracing the seed with its fleshy endosperm and curved embryo. Fl. summer; fr.
late summer to early fall; year round in tropics. Seeds weigh 1.5-2.5
gm/100 seeds.
Germplasm
As Cannabis sativa has been cultivated for over
4,500 years for different purposes, many varieties and cultivars have been
selected for specific purposes, as fiber, oil or narcotics. Drug-producing
selections grow better and produce more drug in the tropics; oil and fiber
producing plants thrive better in the temperate and subtropical areas. Many of
the cultivars and varieties have been named as to the locality where it is
grown mainly. However, all so called varieties freely interbreed and produce
various combinations of the characters. The form of the plant and the yield of
fiber from it vary according to climate and particular variety. Varieties
cultivated particularly for their fibers have long stalks, branch very little,
and yield only small quantities of seed. Varieties which are grown for the oil
from their seed are short in height, mature early and produce large quantities
of seed. Varieties grown for the drugs are short, much-branched with smaller
dark-green leaves. Between these three main types of plants are numerous
varieties which differ from the main one in height, extent of branching and
other characteristics. Reported from the Central Asia, Hindustani, and
Eurosiberian Centers of Diversity, marijuana or cvs thereof is reported to
tolerate disease, drought, fungus, high pH, insects, laterite, low pH,
mycobacteria, poor soil, slope, and weeds. (2n = 20, 10, 40.)
Distribution
Native to Central Asia, and long cultivated in Asia,
Europe, and China. Now a widespread tropical, temperate and subarctic cultivar
and waif. The oldest use of hemp seems to be for fiber, and later the seeds
began to be used for culinary purposes. Plants yielding the drug seem to have
been discovered in India, cultivated for medicinal purposes as early as 900 BC.
In medieval times it was brought to North Africa where today it is cultivated
exclusively for hashish or kif.
Ecology
Plants very adaptable to soil and climatic conditions.
Hemp for fiber requires a mild temperate climate with at least 67 cm annual rainfall,
with abundant rain while seeds are germinating and until young plants become
established. Thrives on rich, fertile, neutral to slightly alkaline,
well-drained silt or clay loams with moisture retentive subsoils; does not grow
well on acid, sandy soils. Of the many types of hemp, some are adapted to most
vegetated terrains and climates. Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet
through Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, marijuana is reported to
tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 40 dm (mean of 44 cases = 9.9 dm), annual
temperature of 6 to 27°C (mean of 44 cases = 14.4), and pH of 4.5 to 8.2 (mean
of 38 cases 6.5) (Duke, 1978, 1979).
Cultivation
Propagation mainly by seed. Experimentally, drug plants
have been propagated from cuttings but such plants do not come true as to drug
content of parent. Seeds stored in cool, dry place remain viable for up to two
years. Hemp seed sown as early in spring as possible. Before sowing, land is
plowed (in fall) several times to a depth of about 20-23 cm and repeatedly
harrowed the land. In spring the land is harrowed again and rolled, making a
firm tilth over the entire surface. In some areas a first plowing is done in
the fall and red clover or lupin planted; in January or February a second
plowing turns these under as a green-manure. Generally sown in March, seeds
germinate at low temperature, but not below 1deg.C. Rate of seed sown varies
with type of fiber desired; for coarse fiber for cordage and coarser textiles,
2.5 bu/ha is used; for finest fibers, 7.5-10 bu/ha used. Seed sown by machine
in rows from 12 cm upwards, placing the seed at depth of 3.5 cm at rate of
40-60 kg/ha. In many countries seed sown broadcast. When grown for seed (oil),
seed sown by drills; then such plants sometimes reach height of 5.3 m with
thick stems up to 5 cm in diameter, much-branched. For fiber, stems up to 2 m
tall and 0.5 cm in diameter are best; larger stems tend to get woody and have
lower fiber content. Besides, they are more difficult to handle during
harvesting, retting and scutching. Plants require little cultivation, except
for weeding during early stages of growth. Hemp grows rapidly and soon crowds
out weeds. After plants are 20 cm tall, weeding is abandoned. Hemp tends to
exhaust the soil of nutrients. Some nutrients are returned to the soil after
plants are harvested. On medium fertile soils a dressing of farm manure or a
green-manure crop should be added and turned under. Chalk, potash, or gypsum
may be applied to the soil to add the needed nutrition. Sodium nitrate and
ammonium along with potassium sulfate have a beneficial effect on the fiber
crop. Fiber-producing plants should always have plenty of proper nutrients,
especially nitrogen, which is the most important element needed. Irrigation is
seldom practiced.
Harvesting
Hemp is ready for harvest four to five months after
planting, rarely earlier for some varieties. Harvesting depends on the climatic
conditions, the variety of hemp grown and whether the crop is being grown for
hemp or seed. In temperate areas, hemp is usually harvested from mid July to
mid August. Both male and female plants look alike until they flower; then the
male plants turn yellow and die, whereas the female plants remain dark green
for another month until the seed ripens. Male plants are ready to harvest for
fiber when the leaves change from dark green to light brown. The best yield of
fiber (and only male plants are used) is then obtained. Hemp is harvested when
the staminate flowers are beginning to open and shed their pollen. Seed is
harvested from the female plants when most of it falls off when the plant is
shaken. Best time of day to harvest seed is in early morning when fruits are
turgid and conditions damp. As fruits dry out by mid-day, seed loss increases
due to shattering. Usually stems are cut and the seeds shaken out over canvas
sheets or beaten with sticks to extract the seeds. For fiber, hemp plants are
cut by hand with a hemp knife, similar to a long-handled sickle. Plants are cut
2-3 cm above the ground and spread on the ground to dry. In some areas, the
entire plants are pulled up and laid out to dry. Hand cutting, one man can cut
about one-fifth hectare per day. Sometimes specially designed harvesters with a
tractor are able to harvest four hectares a day. In many areas several
varieties of hemp are grown so as to spread out the harvest, one maturing in
late July and used later for seed crop in September, a second crop maturing in
mid August, and a third maturing near end of August. Fiber is extracted from
the stems of hemp by retting by methods similar to those used for other fiber
plants. Sometimes the stems are dried before they are retted. After plants have
air-dried for 4-6 days, the root and flower ends are cut off and the remaining
portions, with branches and leaves taken or beaten off, are made into small
bundles. For retting, 15-20 of these smaller bundles are made into larger
bundles. In other areas stalks are not dried before retting, green stems, after
roots and flower ends have been cut off, are made into bundles, and retted
immediately. Hemp can be water retted, dew retted, or snow retted, according to
the climatic conditions. The retted hemp stalks consist of fiber in the outer
rind and a woody interior portion. Fiber is separated from the stalk by a breaking
process. Stalks are dried after retting and the woody shive is broken into
short pieces called hurds. Eventually the fibers are separated from the
interior woody pieces by scutching by passing the bundles through a number of
fluted rollers and then past large revolving drums with projecting bars which
remove any remaining pieces of wood. Machines are able to handle 3-3.5 MT dried
straw every hour, producing 0.4-0.5 MT of cleaned fiber.
Yields and Economics
Yields of hemp per hectare depend on climatic conditions,
variety grown, soil and nutrition, and spacing of plants in the field. Weight
of dried stems per hectare is usually between 4.5 to 7.5 T, with a yield of
fiber about 25% of the dried stalks. Usually the taller the plant, the longer
will be the fiber with a greater yield per plant. In some areas fiber yields of
850- 1,700 kg/ha compared to 1,300-1,700 kg/ha seed and 30 kg ganja. The
U.S.S.R. is the largest producer of hemp in the world, producing about 33% of
hemp fiber, annually 105,000 MT compared to the world production of 255,000 MT
(excepting China). France and West Germany are the chief importers, Italy and
Yugoslavia exporters. Chile, China, Japan and Peru also produce hemp. Narcotic
production is usually clandestine, but there is legal marijuana production in
India. India is the main producer and exporter of oil from the seed.
Energy
In India, plants remaining in the field after harvesting
for fiber are allowed to set seed. They are cut after the fruits are ripened
and dried and threshed for seed collection. Grown solely for seeds, an average
crop yields 1.3 to 1.6 MT/ha seed. The world low production yield was 288 kg/ha
in Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the international production yield
was 613 kg/ha, and the world high production yield was 3,842 kg/ha in People's
Republic of China.
Biotic Factors
Among diseases of Cannibis are: Botryosphaeria
marconii (stem canker, wilt), Botrytis cinerea (gray mold), Cylindrosporium
sp. (leaf spot), Fusarium sp. (canker, stem rot), Gibberella saubinetii
(stem rot), Hypomyces cancri (?root rot), Macrophominia phaseoli,
Phomopsis cannabina, Phymatotrichum omivorum (root rot), Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum (stem rot, wilt), Sclerotium rolfsii (southern blight),
Septoria cannabis (leaf spot). Nematodes include: Ditylenchus
dipsaci, Heterodera humuli, Longidorus maximus, Meloidogyne hapla, M.
incognita, M. incognita acrita, M. spp., and Pratylenchus coffeae (Golden,
p.c., 1984). Occasionally Orobanche ramosa is paratitic on the
roots.
CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION
11 PRIMARY ALKALOIDS
I) Morphine - 5-21%
4) Nardin
7) Pseudornorphine
10) Laudanoisine
13) Codamine
16) Xanthaline
2) SECONDARY ALKALOIDS
1) Apomorphine
2) Oxydimorphine
3) Apocodeine
4) Desoxycodeine
3) NEUTRAL PRINCIPLE
1) Opionin 2) Meconin 3) Meconoidin
4) ORGANIC ACIDS -
1) Lactic acid 2) Meconic acid.
Water - 16%, resin, glucose, fat, volatile oil, aromatic principles ammonia, salts of calcium and magnesium -
11 PRIMARY ALKALOIDS
I) Morphine - 5-21%
4) Nardin
7) Pseudornorphine
10) Laudanoisine
13) Codamine
16) Xanthaline
2) SECONDARY ALKALOIDS
1) Apomorphine
2) Oxydimorphine
3) Apocodeine
4) Desoxycodeine
3) NEUTRAL PRINCIPLE
1) Opionin 2) Meconin 3) Meconoidin
4) ORGANIC ACIDS -
1) Lactic acid 2) Meconic acid.
Water - 16%, resin, glucose, fat, volatile oil, aromatic principles ammonia, salts of calcium and magnesium -
Absorption and excretion : ‘
In the stomach its slow absorption occurs, but its absorption occurs laster
in the intestine. It is excreted 90% through urine and its remaining 10% is
excreted through stool. breastmilk, gastric juice and sweat. As it is excreted
through breastmitk. its effects occurs also in the ucking babies. It is
absorbed through placenta also, so effeàts occor in the foetus in the womb.
Ordinarily, in .6 hours morphine is excreted through the body. 75% of the
morphine is excreted through urine in 24 hours.,
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